Showing posts with label Basics. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Basics. Show all posts

Basics : Common Networking terms

Access Point:Access points are way stations in a wireless LAN that are connected to an Ethernet hub or server. Users can roam within the range of access points and their wireless device connections are passed from one access point to the next.

Authentication:Authentication refers to the verification of a transmitted message's integrity.

DMZ: (DeMilitarized Zone) is a part of an network that is located between a secure LAN and an insecure WAN. DMZs provide a way for some clients to have unrestricted access to the Internet.

Beacon Interval :Refers to the interval between packets sent sent by access points for the purposes of synchronizing wireless LANs.

DHCP : (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) software automatically assigns IP addresses to client stations logging onto a TCP/IP network, which eliminates the need to manually assign permanent IP addresses.

DNS :DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS converts machine names to the IP addresses that all machines on the net have. It translates from name to address and from address to name.

Domain Name :The domain name typically refers to an Internet site address.

DTIM:DTIM (Delivery Traffic Indication Message) provides client stations with information on the next opportunity to monitor for broadcast or multicast messages.

Filter :Filters are schemes which only allow specified data to be transmitted. For example, the router can filter specific IP addresses so that users cannot connect to those addresses.

Firewall :Firewalls are methods used to keep networks secure from malicious intruders and unauthorized access. Firewalls use filters to prevent unwanted packets from being transmitted. Firewalls are typically used to provide secure access to the Internet while keeping an organization's public Web server separate from the internal LAN.

Firmware : Firmware refers to memory chips that retain their content without electrical power (for example, BIOS ROM). The router firmware stores settings made in the interface.

Fragmentation :Refers to the breaking up of data packets during transmission.

FTP :FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer files over a TCP/IP network, and is typically used for transferring large files or uploading the HTML pages for a Web site to the Web server.

Gateway :Gateways are computers that convert protocols enabling different networks, applications, and operating systems to exchange information.

Host Name :The name given to a computer or client station that acts as a source for information on the network.

HTTP : HTTP (HyperText Transport Protocol) is the communications protocol used to connect to servers on the World Wide Web. HTTP establishes a connection with a Web server and transmits HTML pages to client browser (for example Windows IE). HTTP addresses all begin with the prefix 'http://' prefix (for example, http://www.shabeeribm.in).

ICMP : ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is a TCP/IP protocol used to send error and control messages over the LAN (for example, it is used by the router to notify a message sender that the destination node is not available).

IP : IP (Internet Protocol) is the protocol in the TCP/IP communications protocol suite that contains a network address and allows messages to be routed to a different network or subnet. However, IP does not ensure delivery of a complete message—TCP provides the function of ensuring delivery.

IP Address : The IP (Internet Protocol) address refers to the address of a computer attached to a TCP/IP network. Every client and server station must have a unique IP address. Clients are assigned either a permanent address or have one dynamically assigned to them via DHCP. IP addresses are written as four sets of numbers separated by periods (for example, 211.23.181.189).

ISP: An ISP is an organization providing Internet access service via modems, ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network), and private lines.

LAN: (Local Area Networks) are networks that serve users within specific geographical areas, such as in a company building. LANs are comprised of servers, workstations, a network operating system, and communications links such as the router.

MAC Address: A MAC address is a unique serial number burned into hardware adapters, giving the adapter a unique identification.

Metric: A number that indicates how long a packet takes to get to its destination.

MTU : MTU (Maximum Transmission/Transfer Unit) is the largest packet size that can be sent over a network. Messages larger than the MTU are divided into smaller packets.

NAT :  NAT (Network Address Translation) enables an organization to present itself to the Internet with one address. NAT converts the address of each LAN node into one IP address for the Internet (and vice versa). NAT also provides a certain amount of security by acting as a firewall by keeping individual IP addresses hidden from the WAN.

(Network) AdministratorThe network administrator is the person who manages the LAN within an organization. The administrator's job includes ensuring network security, keeping software, hardware, and firmware up-to-date, and keeping track of network activity.

NTP :NTP (Network Time Protocol) is used to synchronize the realtime clock in a computer. Internet primary and secondary servers synchronize to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

Packet : A packet is a portion of data that is transmitted in network communications. Packets are also sometimes called frames and datagrams. Packets contain not only data, but also the destination IP address.

Ping :Ping (Packet INternet Groper) is a utility used to find out if a particular IP address is present online, and is usually used by networks for debugging.

Port : Ports are the communications pathways in and out of computers and network devices (routers and switches). Most PCs have serial and parallel ports, which are external sockets for connecting devices such as printers, modems, and mice. All network adapters use ports to connect to the LAN. Ports are typically numbered.

PPPoE : PPPoE (Point-to-Point Protocol Over Ethernet) is used for running PPP protocol (normally used for dial-up Internet connections) over an Ethernet.

Preamble : Preamble refers to the length of a CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) block that monitors communications between roaming wireless enabled devices and access points.

Protocol : A protocol is a rule that governs the communication of data.

RIP : RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a routing protocol that is integrated in the TCP/IP protocol. RIP finds a route that is based on the smallest number of hops between the source of a packet and its destination.

RTS : RTS (Request To Send) is a signal sent from the transmitting station to the receiving station requesting permission to transmit data.

Server : Servers are typically powerful and fast machines that store programs and data. The programs and data are shared by client machines (workstations) on the network.

SMTP : SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is the standard Internet e-mail protocol. SMTP is a TCP/IP protocol defining message format and includes a message transfer agent that stores and forwards mail.

SNMP : SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol) is a widely used network monitoring and control protocol. SNMP hardware or software components transmit network device activity data to the workstation used to oversee the network.

SSID : SSID (Service Set Identifier) is a security measure used in WLANs. The SSID is a unique identifier attached to packets sent over WLANs. This identifier emulates a password when a wireless device attempts communication on the WLAN. Because an SSID distinguishes WLANS from each other, access points and wireless devices trying to connect to a WLAN must use the same SSID.

Subnet Mask : Subnet Masks (SUBNETwork masks) are used by IP protocol to direct messages into a specified network segment (i.e., subnet). A subnet mask is stored in the client machine, server or router and is compared with an incoming IP address to determine whether to accept or reject the packet.

SysLog Server : A SysLog server monitors incoming Syslog messages and decodes the messages for logging purposes.

TCP : (Transmission Control Protocol) is the transport protocol in TCP/IP that ensures messages over the network are transmitted accurately and completely.

TCP/IP : TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the main Internet communications protocol. The TCP part ensures that data is completely sent and received at the other end. Another part of the TCP/IP protocol set is UDP, which is used to send data when accuracy and guaranteed packet delivery are not as important (for example, in realtime video and audio transmission).
The IP component of TCP/IP provides data routability, meaning that data packets contain the destination station and network addresses, enabling TCP/IP messages to be sent to multiple networks within the LAN or in the WAN.

Telnet : Telnet is a terminal emulation protocol commonly used on the Internet and TCP- or IP-based networks.
Telnet is used for connecting to remote devices and running programs. Telnet is an integral component of the TCP/IP communications protocol.

UDP : (User Datagram Protocol) is a protocol within TCP/IP that is used to transport information when accurate delivery isn't necessary (for example, realtime video and audio where packets can be dumped as there is no time for retransmitting the data).

Virtual Servers : Virtual servers are client servers (such as Web servers) that share resources with other virtual servers (i.e., it is not a dedicated server).

WEP : WEP (Wired Equivalent Privacy) is the de facto security protocol for wireless LANs, providing the "equivalent" security available in hardwired networks.

Wireless LAN : Wireless LANs (WLANs) are local area networks that use wireless communications for transmitting data. Transmissions are usually in the 2.4 GHz band. WLAN devices do not need to be lined up for communications like infrared devices. WLAN devices use access points which are connected to the wired LAN and provide connectivity to the LAN. The radio frequency of WLAN devices is strong enough to be transmitted through non-metal walls and objects, and can cover an area up to a thousand feet. Laptops and notebooks use wireless LAN PCMCIA cards while PCs use plug-in cards to access the WLAN.

WAN : 
WAN (Wide Area Network) is a communications network that covers a wide geographic area such as a country (contrasted with a LAN, which covers a small area such as a company building).


Via : Trendnet

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The Cisco Three-Layered Hierarchical Model

The Cisco Three-Layered Hierarchical Model

Cisco has defined a hierarchical model which simplifies the task of building a reliable, scalable, and less expensive hierarchical internetwork because rather than focusing on packet construction, it focuses on the three functional areas, or layers, of your network: 

Core layer: This layer is considered the backbone of the network and includes the high-end switches and high-speed cables such as fiber cables. This layer of the network does not route traffic at the LAN. In addition, no packet manipulation is done by devices in this layer. Rather, this layer is concerned with speed and ensures reliable delivery of packets. 


Distribution layer: This layer is also called the Workgroup layer.This layer includes LAN-based routers and layer 3 switches. This layer ensures that packets are properly routed between subnets and VLANs in your enterprise. 


Access layer: This layer includes hubs and switches. This layer is also called the desktop layer because it focuses on connecting client nodes, such as workstations to the network. This layer ensures that packets are delivered to end user computers.


Main characteristics of three layers are 


* Access layer:


+ Low cost per switch port

+ High port density
+ Scalable uplinks to higher layers
+ User access functions such as VLAN membership, traffic and protocol filtering, and quality of service (QoS)
+ Resiliency through multiple uplinks

* Distribution Layer:


+ Aggregation of multiple access-layer devices

+ High Layer 3 throughput for packet handling
+ Security and policy-based connectivity functions through access lists or packet filters
+ QoS features
+ Scalable and resilient high-speed links to the core and access layers

* Core layer:


+ Very high throughput at Layer 3

+ No costly or unnecessary packet manipulations (access lists, packet filtering)
+ Redundancy and resilience for high availability
+ Advanced QoS functions

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OSI Reference model notes with interview questions

Earlier there was no reference model for devices.At that time a company can only use a specific vendors device only.There will not be intercompactability between different vendors product.To solve this issue,Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Layer
Description
Examples
7.
Application
Provides interface for users to communicate with applications.Responsible for initiating or services the request.
SMTP, DNS, HTTP, and Telnet etc
6.
Presentation
The Presentation layer controls theformatting  and syntax of user data for the application layer. This ensures that data from the sending application can be understood by the receiving application.
JPEG,MP3,MPEG etc
5.
Session
Responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating the session. If a session is broken, this layer can attempt to recover the session.
NetBIOS
4.
Transport
Breaks information into segments and is responsible for connection and connectionless communication.
TCP and UDP
3.
Network
Responsible for logical addressing and routing.Packets are formed in network layer
IP, ICMP,  and routers
2.
Data Link
Responsible for physical addressing, error correction, and preparing the information for the media.Frames present here.Consist of two sublayers LLC and MAC
MAC address, CSMA/CD, switches, and bridges
1.
Physical
Deals with the electrical signal.
Cables, connectors, hubs, and repeaters


OSI Model Interview Questions
  • List the layers of OSI ?
  • What are the responsibilities of Data Link Layer?
  • What are the responsibilities of Network Layer?
  • What are the responsibilities of Transport Layer?
  • Routers work at which OSI layers?
  • Switches work at which OSI layer ?
  • In which layer term "Frames" is used ?
  • In which layer term "Packets" is used ?
  • In which layer term "Segments" is used ?
  • Give some example for protocols work in Application layer ?
  • What is CRC? Which layer CRC works ?
  • What is the purpose of the Data Link?
  • What is a Window in networking terms?
  • What is the role of the LLC sublayer in datalink layer?
  • What is the function of the Application Layer in networking?
  • What are the difference between TCP and UDP?
  • What is the port no of DNS and Telnet?
  • Which service use both TCP and UDP ?
  • What is the port no of SMTP and POP3?
  • Which one is reliable – TCP or UDP ?

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Notes on Administrative Distance and Metric

Routing protocols uses metrics for calculating best path for a remote network. Distance vector routing protocols use “distance” (usually hop-count) as their metric. Link state protocols utilize some sort of “cost” as their metric. Only routes with the best metric are added to the routing table.

 If multiple equal-metric routes exist to a particular network, most routing protocols will load-balance. If your router is running multiple routing protocols, Administrative Distance is used to determine which routing protocol to trust the most. Routing protocol with Lowest administrative distance wins.


A route with an “unknown” Administrative Distance will never be inserted into the routing table
For example consider a router is configured with two routing protocols OSPF and EIGRP. Since EIGRP has lower AD value of 90 when compared to that of OSPF which is 110, the router chooses the path derived by EIGRP. If  we configure a static route with EIGRP, router chooses static route because its AD value is 1.

The Administrative distance can be configured manually and it can override default administrative distance values.
Changing default administrative distance values

RIP
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-route)#distance < 220>

EIGRP
Router(config)#router eigrp 111
Router(config-route)#distance eigrp  <55 > <200>  [internal Ad value and external Ad value]

OSPF
Router(config)#router OSPF 100
Router(config-route)#distance < 90>

NOTE : To go back to default administrative distance in above protocols use no distance command

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Basics : Commonly Used Port Numbers

Commonly Used Port Numbers

If you are responsible for network security, or if you are trying to troubleshoot connectivity between different machines and services, you will often need to know what port a particular services uses.

Below is a list of common protocols and their more-or-less "standard" port numbers. (Ports are TCP unless otherwise noted.)
  • DHCP: Port 67 (UDP)
  • DNS: Port 53 (UDP or TCP)
  • Echo: Port 7
  • FTP: Port 21 (Data channel for Active FTP: 20)
  • Gopher: Port 70
  • HTTP: Port 80
  • HTTPS: Port 443
  • IKE: Port 500 (UDP)
  • IMAP: Port 143
  • IMAP (SSL): Port 993
  • LDAP: Port 389
  • NNTP: Port 119
  • POP3: Port 110
  • POP3 (SSL): Port 995
  • Remote Desktop (RDP) (Terminal Services): Port 3389
  • rtelnet: Port 107
  • SMTP: Port 25
  • SNMP: Port 161
  • SQL Server: Port 1433
  • SQL Probe: Port 1434 (UDP)
  • Telnet: Port 23
  • TFTP: Port 69
  • UUCP: Port 540
  • Whois: Port 43
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Subnetting made easy

What is “subnetting”?

“Subnetting” means we borrow some bits from the Host part to add to the Network part. This allows us to have more networks than using the default subnet mask. For example, we can borrow some bits in the next octet to make the address 11.1.0.1 belong to a different network from 11.0.0.1.

What's the benefit of subnetting? 
Reduce the size of the routing tables.
Reduce network traffic. Broadcast traffic can be isolated within a single logical network.
Provide a way to secure network traffic by isolating it from the rest of the network.

3 main classes of IP address are :
Class A Range 0 - 127 in the first octet
Class B Range 128 - 191 in the first octet
Class C Range 192 - 223 in the first octet


NOTE : 0 and 127 which belongs to Class A are reserved for other purpose.


We can split IP address as mentioned below. IP address consist of 32 bits and we can write it as 4 parts having 8 bits in each


NNNNNNNN . HHHHHHHH . HHHHHHHH . HHHHHHHH
Class A [One network portion and 3 host portion]

NNNNNNNN . NNNNNNNN . HHHHHHHH . HHHHHHHH
Class B [2 network portion and 2 host portion]

NNNNNNNN . NNNNNNNN . NNNNNNNN .
HHHHHHHH
Class C [3 network portion and one host portion]

At each dot imagine that there is a boundary, ie there are boundaries after bits 8, 16, 24, and 32. This is an important concept to remember.

While subnetting bits will always move to your right side.No change will occur in Octets having 255

For eg:
255.255.255.0 – here changes will takes place in fourth octect
255.255.128.0 – here changes will takes in third octect
255.255.255.128 – here changes will takes place in fourth octet
 
First Octet
 Second Octet
 third octet
 Fourth Octet
          255     
     255               
   255    
    0

Default subnet mask of Class A : 255.0.0.0 [CIDR /8 ]
Default subnet mask of Class B : 255.255.0.0  [CIDR /16]
Default subnet mask of Class C : 255.255.255.0 [CIDR /24 ]

Now have a look at the block sizes .If you can memorize Block Size subnetting will be so easy

Subnet Mask
CIDR
Block Size
ON bits on last octet
OFF bits
255.255.255.128
/25
128
1
7
255.255.255.192
/26
64
2
6
255.255.255.224
/27
32
3
5
255.255.255.240
/28
16
4
4
255.255.255.248
/29
8
5
3
255.255.255.252
/30
4
6
2
255.255.255.254
/31
2
7
1

Important : We can find block size by reducing our CIDR value from next Boundary.

Lets have few examples

Q : What subnet does  192.168.10.25/29 belongs to ?

Our mask is  /29. The next boundary is 32. So 32 - 29 = 3. Now 2^3 = 8 which gives us our block size i.e. 2 to the power of 3 equals 8. Subnet mask for /29 is 255.255.255.248

First network address : 192.168.10.0
Second network address : 192.168.10.8
Third network address : 192.168.10.16
Fourth network address :192.168.10.24
Fifth network address : 192.168.10.32

Our IP address comes in 192.168.10.24 range

Q :What is the broadcast address of the network 172.27.216.80/28

Our mask is /28.Next Boundary is 32. So 32-28 = 4 Now 2^4 =16 which gives our block size

Given network is 172.27.216.80/28 .We get block size is 16.So next network will be 172.27.216.96.Broadcast address will be the last ip address of 172.27.216.80 network.So it will be 172.27.216.95

Q : What valid host range is the IP address 172.20.232.102 255.255.255.0 a part of?

Here subnet mask is given as 255.255.255.0
Valid host = 2^[Off bits ] -2 means 2^8 -2 =254.we know 2^8 is 256.

Note :Off bits means number of 0’s . 11111111.11111111.1111111.00000000

Q: What is the first valid host on the subnetwork that the node 172.30.119.235 255.255.255.128 belongs to?

Here subnet mask is 255.255.255.128 .So from above table CIDR is /25.next boundary is 32.So 32-25 = 7 .So block size is 2^7 = 128

Network address of 172.30.119.235 is 172.30.119.128 and first valid host is 172.30.119.129
Q : What subnet does  172.16.16.25/20 belongs to ?

Our mask is  /20. The next boundary is 24. So 24 - 20 = 4. Now 2^4 = 16 which gives us our block size i.e. 2 to the power of 4 equals 16. Subnet mask for /20 is 255.255.240.0

First network address : 172.16.0.0
Second network address : 172.16.16.0
Third network address : 172.16.32.0
... etc


So our IP address comes in 172.16.16.0 range

Full list

CIDR
Subnet Mask
Addresses
Wildcard




/32
255.255.255.255
1
0.0.0.0
/31
255.255.255.254
2
0.0.0.1
/30
255.255.255.252
4
0.0.0.3
/29
255.255.255.248
8
0.0.0.7
/28
255.255.255.240
16
0.0.0.15
/27
255.255.255.224
32
0.0.0.31
/26
255.255.255.192
64
0.0.0.63
/25
255.255.255.128
128
0.0.0.127
/24
255.255.255.0
256
0.0.0.255
/23
255.255.254.0
512
0.0.1.255
/22
255.255.252.0
1,024
0.0.3.255
/21
255.255.248.0
2,048
0.0.7.255
/20
255.255.240.0
4,096
0.0.15.255
/19
255.255.224.0
8,192
0.0.31.255
/18
255.255.192.0
16,384
0.0.63.255
/17
255.255.128.0
32,768
0.0.127.255
/16
255.255.0.0
65,536
0.0.255.255
/15
255.254.0.0
131,072
0.1.255.255
/14
255.252.0.0
262,144
0.3.255.255
/13
255.248.0.0
524,288
0.7.255.255
/12
255.240.0.0
1,048,576
0.15.255.255
/11
255.224.0.0
2,097,152
0.31.255.255
/10
255.192.0.0
4,194,304
0.63.255.255
/9
255.128.0.0
8,388,608
0.127.255.255
/8
255.0.0.0
16,777,216
0.255.255.255
/7
254.0.0.0
33,554,432
1.255.255.255
/6
252.0.0.0
67,108,864
3.255.255.255
/5
248.0.0.0
134,217,728
7.255.255.255
/4
240.0.0.0
268,435,456
15.255.255.255
/3
224.0.0.0
536,870,912
31.255.255.255
/2
192.0.0.0
1,073,741,824
63.255.255.255
/1
128.0.0.0
2,147,483,648
127.255.255.255
/0
0.0.0.0
4,294,967,296
255.255.255.255


Hope you feel subnetting is easy now..You can practice more questions at http://www.subnettingquestions.com/

Happy Subnetting.....

If you have any doubts regarding subnetting feel free to ask in comment section :)

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